Argumentation
Defend a position with evidence, logic, and respect for opposing views.
I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.
— Evelyn Beatrice Hall (attributed to Voltaire)Mastery progression
States opinions without giving reasons. Confuses asserting with arguing. Struggles to hold a position when questioned.
Gives reasons for their opinions. Starts to use evidence but superficially. Can identify a counter-argument.
Builds arguments with premise, evidence, and conclusion. Anticipates objections. Distinguishes opinion from argument.
Argues with logical rigor and empathy. Evaluates the strength of different arguments. Changes their position when faced with better evidence.
- Give a reason to justify their opinion
- Identify whether someone is giving an opinion or stating a fact
- Say whether they agree or disagree and why
- Structure an argument with claim + evidence + explanation
- Respond to a counter-argument without dismissing the other person
- Identify common fallacies in a text or speech
- Evaluate whether the evidence presented is sufficient and relevant
- Build an argument in favor of a position they disagree with
- Moderate a debate ensuring argumentative quality from all participants
- Design an argument evaluation framework for a complex topic
Questions that activate it
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What is your claim, and what evidence do you have to support it?
Tap to flipThe foundational question of all argumentation. Separates opinion from evidence. If there is no evidence, it's a belief, not an argument.
Tap to returnWhat would someone who thinks the opposite say?
Tap to flipTrains cognitive empathy and strengthens the argument. If you can anticipate the objection, you can address it in advance.
Tap to returnDoes that evidence prove what you're saying, or could it prove something else?
Tap to flipWorks on the distinction between correlation and causation. Avoids logical leaps that weaken the argument.
Tap to returnWhat would have to happen for you to change your mind?
Tap to flipMeasures intellectual openness. If nothing could change the opinion, it's not an argument — it's a dogma.
Tap to returnDoes your argument hold in all cases or only in this one?
Tap to flipDetects excessive generalizations. Helps narrow the claim to make it more solid.
Tap to returnAre you attacking the idea or the person who said it?
Tap to flipTrains the distinction between ad hominem attacks and legitimate refutation. A fundamental rule of respectful debate.
Tap to returnCould you state your argument in three sentences?
Tap to flipForces synthesis. An argument that cannot be summarized is probably not well structured.
Tap to returnWhat is the strongest part of the opposing argument?
Tap to flipThe principle of charity: represent the best version of the opposing argument before refuting it.
Tap to returnA Stanford University study found that students who practice structured argumentation improve not only their expression but also their reading comprehension by 20%, because learning to argue teaches reading with an analytical eye.
Kuhn, D. (2005) — Education for Thinking, Harvard University PressIdeas for developing it
- Structured debates in the format: claim, evidence, refutation, closing
- Reverse debate: defend the position opposite to your own
- Identify thesis, arguments, and evidence in an opinion article
- Write a letter to the editor arguing for or against a measure
- Analyze ethical dilemmas where there is no single 'correct' answer
- Create an argument map with pros and cons of a decision
- Fishbowl: one group debates, the other observes and evaluates argument quality
- Build a collective argument where each person adds one piece
- Fallacy hunt: identify logical errors in advertising and social media
- Create your own examples of each type of fallacy
Resources and tools
An entertaining guide to rhetoric and argumentation using pop culture examples. Accessible and practical.
Agreement ScaleVideoHow to Argue — Think Smarter (YouTube)A short video explaining the components of a solid argument with clear animations.
Dilemma CardsESWebsiteLogical Fallacies — YourLogicalFallacyIs.comVisual catalog of logical fallacies in Spanish. Ideal for classroom use with clear examples.
Silent DebateOpinion Thermometer